Wednesday, 11 December 2013

Well Known Indian Scientists

Aryabhatta: He lived between 476 and 520 A.D. He was a great mathematician and an astronomer. His contributions include about the movement of earth around the Sun, determination of various physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such as diameter of Earth and Moon. He laid foundations of algebra and pointed out the importance of zero. The first Indian satellite was named after him.
Bhagavantam: His contribution to radio astronomy and cosmic rays in noteworthy. An associate of Sir C.V.Raman, Dr.S.Bhagavantam was scientific adviser in the Ministry of Defence and Director General of Defence Research Development Organisation.
Bhaskaracharya: Born in 1114 A.D., bhaskaracharya was a great Hindu mathematician and Astronomer. His work ‘Sidhanta Siromain’ consists of two parts of mathematics and two parts of astronomy. He had a foresight on the modern theory of conventions.
S.S. Bhatnagar: A great Indian Scientist who lived between 1895 and 1955. He was the first Director General of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. Under his directorship, many research laboratories were established throughout India.
J.C.Bose: He was an eminent Physicist and Botanist. He founded Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. He invented Crescograph and lived between 1858 and 1937.
S.N. Bose: He became well-known when he expounded the Bose Einstein theory which deals with the detection of a group of nuclear particles – named after him ‘Boson’. His contribution to Planck’s Law is laudable. He died in 1974.
Dr. S.Chandrasekhar: An Indian-born American, who won Nobel Prize for Physics in 1983. He is an Astrophysicist. His theory of Stellar Evolution – the birth and death of stars is 35 years old. His first discovery was laughed at. After three decades, it was recognised and today he is a Nobel Laureate. According to his theory, the old stars just collapse and disappear in the light of denser stars of low light popularly called Chandrasekhar Limit.
Charaka: He lived between 80 and 180 A.D. He was a court physician of King Kanishka. His writings on Hindu Medicine are invaluable
Dhanvantri: He was a great physician during the period of Chandragupta Vikramaditya. His period was between 375 and 413 A.D.
Hargobind Khorana: He created an artificial gene and deciphered genetic code. He was awarded Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1968.
Homi J.Bhaba: He largely contributed to the development of Atomic Physics and he was primarily responsible for setting up of Nuclear reactors in India. He published important papers on Quantum Theory, Cosmic Rays, Structure of atom, etc. He was the first Chairman of Atomic Energy Commission. He died in a plane crash in 1966 over Alps.
Joshi: Prof. S.S.Joshi’s works on physical and chemical reaction under electrical discharge on active nitrogen, colloids, hydrogen peroxide are noteworthy
Nagarjuna: A great Buddhist Philosopher and Chemist. He mentioned about crecibles, sublimation, colouring process etc. His works are still available in China and Tibet. His theory on extraction of copper and metallic oxides are mention-worthy.
Nag Chowdhury B.D: An eminent Indian Nuclear Physicist known all over the world.
Narlikar: J.V.Narlikar was the co-author of Hoyle-Narlikar theory of continuous creation which supplies missing links in Einstein’s theory of Relativity. Hoyle and Narlikar have shown that the gravitation is always attractive and there is no gravitational repulsions.
Raja Ramanna: A great nuclear scientist, who was instrumental to stage India’s first Nuclear explosion at Pokharan range in 1974.
Sir C.V. Raman: First Indian Scientist to receive Nobel prize for physics in 1929 for his invention ‘Raman Effect’. His study of crystal structure is of unique importance. He founded Raman Research Institute at Bangalore.
Sir C.P.Roy: Author of ‘Hindu Chemistry’. He founded Indian Chemical Society and Bengal Chemical and Pharmaceuticals Ltd. He has done good work on nitrous acid and its salts. He lived between 1861- 1944 AD.
Prof. V.Ramachandra Rao: Direction of Indian Scientific Satellite Project (ISSP) at Peenya near Bangalore
Saha Dr.Maghnad: Late Palit Prof.of Physics, University College of Scientific and Technology, Calcutta University well-known for his researches in nuclear physics, cosmic rays, spectrum analysis and other branches of theoretical physics. He lived from 1893 to 1956.
Srinivas Ramanujam: A mathematical wizard, contributed much to number theory, theory of partitions and theory of continuous fractions. He lived between 1887 to 1920 AD. His birth centenary was celebrated in 1987.
Satish Dhavan: He was chairman of Indian Space Research Organisation. He was instrumental to take India into space age by launching Aryabhatta in 1975.
Susruta: A fourth century Hindu Surgeon and Physician. He had written an important book on medicine and on medical properties of garlic.
Varahamihira: An Indian astronomer and astrologer of 6th Century A.D. He was a mathematician and philosopher. He was one of the nine gems of Vikramaditya.

Worlds Prominent Scientists

Abdul Kalam, Dr A.P.J.: is credited with advancement of missile technology in India. He was honoured with Bharat Ratna award on November 26, 1997. He is known as “father of India’s Missile Technology”. Elected 11th President of India.
Alvares, Luis W.: is an American physicist teaching at the University of California, Berkeley, U.S.A. He won the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1968 for an important breakthrough he made in elementary physics in 1960 when he discovered a new resonance particle—a discovery that shattered the then prevailing notions as to how matter was built.
Anfinsen, Dr Christian B.: of the U.S.A.’s National Institute of Health, Bethseda, Maryland was one of the three co-winners of the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1972.
Archimedes: Greek mathematician (born in Sicily) who lived about 250 B.C. is known for the discovery of the Archimedes’ principle viz., The volume of any insoluble solid can be found by noting its loss of weight when immersed in water. He is also credited with the invention of Archimedean Screw, a cylindrical device for raising water.
Arrow, Kenneth, J.: of Harvard University, U.S.A. is co-winner of the Nobel Prize for Economics, 1972 with Sir John Richard Hicks of Oxford University. The two men are known for their pioneering contributions to general economic equilibrium and welfare theories.
Aryabhatta: (A.D. 476-520) after whom India’s first scientific satellite has been named, was a great Indian astronomer and mathematician. Among his important contributions are the recognition of the importance of the mov ement of the earth round the sun, determination of the physical parameters of various celestial bodies, such as diameter of the earth and the moon. He laid the foundations of algebra and was responsible for pointing out importance of “zero”.
Avogadro, Amedeo: (1776-1856) Italian physicist; founder of Avogadro’s hypothesis: “Equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure, contain equal number of molecules.” He also defined a molecule.
Bardeen, Prof John: of the University of Illinois (U.S.A.) is co-winner of the Nobel Prize for Physics, 1972 (with Prof Leon N. Cooper and Prof John Robert Schrieffer) for researches into the “theory of super-conductivity” usually called the BCS theory.
Barnard, Christian: South African surgeon who shot into world news in December 1967 when he completed the first heart transplant operation on Louis Washkansky.
Beadle, Dr G.: American scientist awarded Nobel Prize for medicine in 1958 for his work concerning the actual basis of heredity—the way in which characteristics are transmitted from one generation to another.
Becquerel, Henri: (1852-1908) French physicist known for his discovery in 1896 of Becquerel rays, the first indications of radio-activity; these rays were later named gamma rays. He shared Nobel Prize for Physics with the Curies in 1903.
Berzelius, J.J: (1779-1848) Swedish Chemist, known for introduction of chemical shorthand symbols and atomic weights.
Bessemer, Sir Henry: (1813-1898) English engineer. He invented the process for the manufacture of steel known after his name.
Bhabha, Dr H.J.: (1909-66) Indian scientist. He published important papers on Cosmic Rays and Quantum Theory. He was professor at the Indian Science Institute, Bangalore; Chairman, Atomic Energy Commission; Director, Tata Institute of Fundamental Research; President, Indian Science Congress in 1951 and presided at the Atoms for Peace Conference held at Geneva in 1956. He had many significant researches in structure of atom and contributed largely to the setting up of atomic reactors at Trombay (Mumbai).
Bhagvantam, Dr S.: is an eminent Indian scientist who has made a rich contribution to research in radio astronomy and cosmic rays. He has published more than 150 research papers and several books. He retired in October 1969 as the Scientific Adviser to the Ministry of Defence, and Director General of the Defence Research Development Organisation. He is an old-time associate of Sir C.V. Raman.
Bhaskaracharya: Born in A.D. 1114, he was almost the last great Hindu mathematician and astronomer until modern times. He wrote Sidhanta-Siromani in 1150 which consisted of two mathematical and two astronomical parts. Bhaskara anticipated the modern theory on the convention of signs (minus by minus makes plus, minus by plus makes minus). He also anticipated Kepler’s method for determining the surface and volume of sphere.
Bhatnagar, Dr Shanti Swarup: (1895-1955) great Indian scientist. He was Director of Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (C.S.I.R.). A chain of National Laboratories has been established in the country due to his able organisation and unbounded energy.
Bohr, Neils: (born 1885) Danish Physicist. He was awarded Nobel Prize for Physics in 1922. He greatly extended the theory of atomic structure of devising an atomic model in 1913 and evolving theory of nuclear structure; assisted America in atom bomb research.
Borlaug, Norman Ernest: American agricultural scientist and winner of the Nobel Prize for Peace in 1970. He was one of those who laid the groundwork of the Green Revolution.
Bose, Sir J.C.: (1858-1937) Eminent Indian physicist and Botanist; founder of Bose Research Institute, Calcutta. Inventor of crescograph which is used to magnify movements made by plants.
Bose, S.N.: Eminent Indian scientist who won fame by expounding the Bose-Einstein theory, which is concerned in detection of a group of nuclear particles—named after him ‘Boson’ in recognition of his contribution to the subject; contributed to Plank’s law. Professor of physics, Calcutta University; nominated member to the Council of States. Awarded Padma Vibhushan in 1954. He died on February 4, 1974.
Boyle, Robert: (1627-1691) Irish natural philosopher; one of the founders of modern chemistry and Boyle’s law: “Temperature remaining constant, volume of a given mass of gas varies inversely as its pressure.”
Bragg, Sir William: (1862-1942) British physicist known for researches on the behaviour of crystals with regard to X-rays incident upon them. Author of the book: “Atomic Structure of Minerals”.

Important Scientific appliances and their working principles

Aeroplane: An aeroplane usually consists of the following three parts: (i) Wings, (ii) The engine and the propeller; and (iii) The tail. Working: In order to operate an aeroplane, the propeller is made to revolve at a very high speed with the help of a powerful petrol engine. The direction of the blades is so adjusted as to push the air in a backward direction, thereby producing a relative velocity between the ’plane and air—thus pushing the aeroplane in a forward direction. The push should be large enough to overcome the drag and should supply power for climbing.
Air conditioning: is the process of controlling the humidity, temperature, purity and circulation of air in a certain factory, a public building, hotels or a private house. The major aim of air-conditioning is to regulate the temperature, thereby producing a “cooling effect” on the whole. Exhaust machines are devised at a particular place for driving out waste and dirty gases, thereby completely purifying the air.
Binoculars: is an instrument used for seeing distant objects; the rays of light are twice reflected by means of right-angled prisms.
Carburettor: It is an apparatus for getting liquid fuel mixed with air as it is taken into an automobile or other like engines.
CD-Rom: It is a computer peripheral device that employs compact disk technology to store large amounts of digitized data for later retrieval.
Cellular Phone: This phone allows you to make a telephone while on the move. It can be installed in vehicles or can be carried along.
Cinematography: The principle of persistence of vision is utilised in cinematography. A cinematograph is an apparatus for projecting the pictures of moving objects on the screen. The instantaneous photographs of the successive positions of the moving body are photographed on a continuous film with the help of a special camera called the movie camera, with an automatic shutter at the rate of nearly 16 per second. The film duly developed is projected intermittently with a similar shutter as above so that it opens when the film is stationary and closes when it jerks off.
Computer: A complicated electronic machine which can perform incredibly complex calculations at incomprehensible speeds. It was invented by Charles Babbage. It can do whatever we know how to order it to perform. A computer consists of a Central Processing Unit (C.P.U.) and a number of peripheral units. A computer does not do anything which a human being cannot do. Only that it does is much faster and accurately.
Dewar Flask: is a double-walled glass flask, the inner surface of the outer vessel and the outer surface of the inner vessel of which have been silvered. The vacuum is created in the space between the two walls. This principle successfully prevents any interchange of temperature of the contents, because: (1) glass is a bad conductor (2) convection is not possible because there is vacuum between the walls and (3) a little radiation that takes place from the inner vessel is reflected by the inner surface of the outer wall.
Daniel Cell: In this a rod of zinc is placed in dilute sulphuric acid contained in a cylindrical porous pot. The porous pot and its contents are placed in a large cylindrical copper vessel which also functions as positive pole of the cell. The space between the porous pot and the copper vessel is occupied by a solution of copper sulphate. The hydrogen produced by the action of the zinc on sulphuric acid travels towards the copper electrode. On delivering its electricity to the copper, it reacts with the copper sulphate turning copper out of the solution and forming sulphuric acid. The particles of copper liberated from the solution adhere to the outer copper vessel and thus the hydrogen is rendered harmless so far as polarisation is concerned.
Diesel Engine: It is a particular type of internal combustion engine, known as compression ignition engine. The air inside the cylinder is usually compressed to over 500 lbs. per sq. in. and the temperature is attained up to 800°F. At this stage the oil is injected into the hot compressed air, which gets ignited immediately, thereby producing a continuous gas stream, which pushes the piston upward. And thereafter the engine gets into operation.
Dynamo: The origin of the electricity in a dynamo is the transformation of mechanical energy into electrical energy. It depends on the principle of electro-magnetic induction whereby a current is produced on traversing a magnetic field.

Important of Scientific laws and principals

Archimedes’ Principle: It states that a body, when immersed in a liquid, experiences an upward thrust equal to the weight of the liquid displaced by it.
Avogadro’s Hypothesis: It is a modification of Berzelius’ hypothesis. It states that equal volumes of all gases under similar conditions of temperature and pressure contain equal number of molecules. Avogadro’s law is applicable only to gases.
Boyle’s Law: states that the volume of certain gas is inversely proportional to the pressure at a constant temperature. In other words the product of pressure and volume remains constant provided the temperature is kept constant i.e., P x V = a constant if T remains the same.
Charles’s Law: It states that at constant pressure all gases expand by 1/273 of their volume at 0°C for a rise in temperature of 1°C i.e., the volume of a given mass of gas at constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature.
Coulomb’s law:
The force between the two electric charges reduces to a quarter of its former value when the distance between them is doubled.
Dulong and Petit’s Law: states that the product of atomic weight and specific heat of solid elements is nearly equal to 6.4 i.e., At wt. x sp. heat = 6.4 approx.
Gay-Lussac’s Law of combining volumes: Gases react together in volumes which bear simple whole number ratios to one another and also to the volumes of the products, if gaseous—all the volumes being measured under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
Graham’s Law of Diffusion:
states that the rates of diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of their densities under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.
Kepler’s Law: According to this law, a line drawn from the sun to a planet, moving around it, sweeps over a fixed area in a given interval of time.
Law of definite proportions: A chemical compound is always found to be made up of the same elements combined together in the same ratio by weight.
Law of Floatation: for a body to float, the following conditions must be fulfilled: (1) The weight of the body should be equal to the weight of the water displaced. (2) The centre of gravity of the body and that of the liquid displaced should be in the same straight line.
Law of conservation of matter:
In chemical changes, matter is neither created nor destroyed. The sum total of the masses of all the products of a chemical change is exactly equal to the sum total of the substances from which these products have been formed.
Laws of thermodynamics:
The amount of heat given to a system is equal to the sum of the increase in the internal energy of the system and the external work done. It is impossible to construct a continuous self-acting machine that can pump heat energy from a body at lower temperature to a body at higher temperature.
Lenz’s Law: When there is change in the magnetic flux linked with a circuit, the electric current induced in the circuit will have a magnetic field opposing the change producing it.
Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation: states that “Every portion of matter attracts or tends to approach every other portion of matter in the universe with a force proportional to the masses and inversely as the square of the distance.”
Newton’s First Law of Motion: “A body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by an external force to change that state.”
Newton’s Second Law of Motion: “The rate of change of momentum is proportional to the impressed force and takes place in the direction of the force.”
Newton’s Third Law of Motion:
“To every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction.”
Newton’s Law of Cooling: states that the rate of loss of heat of a hot body is directly proportional to the difference of temperature between the body and the surroundings and is independent of the nature of the body.
Ohm’s Law: states that the ratio of the potential difference between the ends of a conductor and the current flowing in the conductor is constant, e.g., for a potential difference of E volts and a current I amperes, the resistance R, in ohms is equal to E/I.
Principle of conservation of energy: It states that, in any system, energy cannot be created or destroyed; the sum of mass and energy remains constant.
Snell’s Law: It states that the ratio of the sine of angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction remains constant for any two given media.
Specific heat of substance: The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 gram. of a substance through 1°C.

World Capitals



Country
Capital
Afganistan
Kabul
Albania
Tirana
Algeria
Algiers
Andorra
Luanda
Antigua & Barbuda
St. Jon's
Argentina
Buenos Aires
Armenia
Yarevan
Australia
Canberra
Austria
Vienna
Azerbaijan
Baku
Bahamas
Nassau
Bahrain
Manama
Bangladesh
Dhaka
Barbados
Bridgetown
Belarus
Minsk
Belgium
Brussels
Belize
Belmopan
Benin
Porto Novo
Bhutan
Thimphu
Bolivia
Sucre/ La Paz
Bosnia-Herzegovina 
Sarajevo (Bosnia)
Botswana
Gabarone
Brazil
Brasilia
Brunei Darussalam
Bandar Seri Begawan
Bulgaria
Sofia
Burkina Faso
Ouagadougou
Burundi
Bujumbura
Cambodia
Phnom Penh
Cameroon
Yaounde
Canada
Ottawa
Cape Verde
Praia
Central African Republic
Bangui
Chad
N'djamena
Chile
Santiago
China
Beijing
Colombia
Bogotá
Comoros
Moroni
Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo)
Kinshasa
Congo (Republic of Congo)
Brazzaville
Costa Rica
San Jose
Cote D'ivoire
Yamoussoukro
Croatia
Zagreb
Cuba
Havana
Cyprus (Republic of Cyprus)
Nicosia
Northern Cyprus  (Turkish Republic of Cyprus)
Nicosia North
Czech Republic
Prague
Denmark
Copenhagen
Djibouti
Djibouti
Dominica
Roseau
Dominican Republic
Santo Domingo
Ecuador
Quito
Egypt
Cairo
El Salvador
San Salvador
Equatorial Guinea
Malabo
Eritrea
Asmara
Estonia
Tallinn
Ethiopia
Addis Ababa
Fiji
Suva
Finland
Helsinki
France
Paris
Gabon
Libreville
Gambia
Banjul
Georgia
Tbilisi
Germany
Bonn
Ghana
Accra
Greece
Athens
Granada
St. George's
Guatemala
Guatemala City
Guinea
Conakry
Guinea-Bissau
Bissau
Guyana
Georgetown
Haiti
Port-Au-Prince
Hungary
Budapest
Iceland
Reykjavik
India
New Delhi
Indonesia
Jakarta
Iran
Tehran
Iraq
Baghdad
Ireland
Dublin
Israel
Jerusalem
Italy
Rome
Jamaica
Kingston
Japan
Tokyo
Jordan
Amman
Kazakhstan
Astana
Kenya
Nairobi
Kiribati
Bairiki
Korea, North
Pyongyang
Korea, South
Seoul
Kuwait
Kuwait
Kyrgyzstan
Bishkek
Laos
Vientiane
Latvia
Riga
Lebanon
Berut
Lesotho
Maseru
Liberia
Monrovia
Libya
Tripoli
Liechtenstein
Vaduz
Lithunia
Vilnius
Luxembourg
Luxembourg
Macedonia
Skopje
Madagascar
Antananarivo
Malawi
Lilongwe
Malaysia
Kuala Lumpur
Maldives
Male
Mali
Bamako
Malta
Valletta
Marshall Islands
Dalap-Uliga-Darrit
Mauritania
Nouakchott
Mauritius
Port Louis
Mexico
Mexico City
Micronesia
Palikir
Moldova
Chisinau
Monaco
Monaco
Mongolia
Ulan Batur
Morrocco
Rabat
Mozambique
Maputo
Myanmar
Yangon
Namibia
Windhoek
Nauru
Yaren
Nepal
Kathmandu
The Netherlands
Amsterdam
New Zealand
Wellington
Nicaragua
Managua
Niger
Niamey
Nigeria
Abuja
Norway
Oslo
Oman
Muscat
Pakistan
Islamabad
Panama
Panama City
Papua New Guinea
Port Moresby
Paraguay
Asuncion
Peru
Lima
The Philippines
Manila
Poland
Warsaw
Portugal
Lisbon
Qatar
Doha
Romania
Bucharest
Russia
Moscow
Rwanda
Kigali
St. Kitts and Nevis
Basseterre
St. Lucia
Castries
St. Vincent and The Grenadines
Kingstown
San Marino
San Marino
Samoa
Apia
Sao Tome and Principe
Sao Tome
Saudi Arabia
Riyadh
Senegal
Dakar
Seychelles
Victoria
Sierra Leone
Freetown
Singapore
Singapore City
Slovakia
Bratislava
Slovenia
Ljublijana
Solomon Islands
Honiara
Somalia
Mogadishu
South Africa
Pretoria/ Cape Town
Spain
Madrid
Sri Lanka
Colombo
Sudan
Khartoum
Suriname
Paramaribo
Swaziland
Mbabane
Sweden
Stockholm
Switzerland
Berne
Syria
Damascus
Taiwan
Taipei
Tajikistan
Dushanbe
Tanzania
Dar -E_Salaam
Thailand
Bangkok
Togo
Lome
Tonga
Nuku'alofa
Trinad and Tobago
Port-of Spain
Tunisia
Tunis
Turky
Ankara
Turkmenistan
Ashgabat
Tuvalu
Fongafale
Uganda
Kampala
Ukraine
Kyiv
United Arab Emirates
Abu-Dhabi
United Kingdom
London
United States
Washington DC
Uruguay
Montevideo
Uzbekistan
Tashkent
Vanuatu
Vila
Vatican City State
Vatican City
Venezuela
Caracas
Vietnam
Hanoi
Yemen
Sana'a
Yugoslavia
Belgrade
Zambia
Lusaka
Zimbabwe
Harare